Beings
Beige
Beige is a light yellowish grey color.
Beige (#F5F5DC)
The term originates from beige cloth, a woolen fabric left in its natural color.
It has since come to be used for a range of light shades chosen for their
neutral or cool appearance, and is often (mis)used for light brown shades.
The first recorded use of Beige as a color name in English was in 1887.
Beige and Ecru
Originally in the 19th century and up to at least 1930, the color ecru meant
exactly the same color as beige or pale cream colour , and the word is often
used to refer to such fabrics as silk and linen in their unbleached state. Ecru
comes from the French word écru, which means literally 'raw' or 'unbleached'.
Now in the 21st century, however, ecru is considered a different color from
beige.
Beige and Zinnwaldite
It is common for those in the baby boom generation to think of beige as being
the color zinnwaldite because in the 1960s, AT&T marketed a colored telephone
for offices and homes in a color they called "beige" which was actually the
color zinnwaldite.
French beige
French Beige
<imagemap>Image:Information-silk.png|About these coordinates rect 0 0 50 50
About these coordinates desc none</imagemap>— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #A67B5B
RGBB (r, g, b) (166, 123, 91)
HSV (h, s, v) (40°, 40%, 60%)
Source ISCC-NBS
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
At right is displayed the color French beige.
It is perhaps the existence of this color that led people to believe that beige
is a light brown color instead of the pale cream shown in the color box at the
beginning of this article. The first recorded use of French beige as a color
name in English was in 1927.
The source of this color is the following website: ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color
Names (1955)--Color Sample of French beige (color sample #57)
Colors in the beige range
Related color names used for colors in the beige range include cream, buff,
zinnwaldite, ecru, tan, and Khaki.
Colors in the beige range color comparison chart
* Yellow Mist (web color Light Yellow) (Hex: #FFFFE0) (RGB: 255, 255, 224)
* Old Lace (web color) (Hex: #FFA6C9) (RGB: 245, 245, 220)
* Linen (web color) (Hex: #FAF0E6) (RGB: 250, 240, 230)
* Antique White (web color) (Hex: #FAEBD7) (RGB: 250, 235, 215)
* Blanched Almond (web color) (Hex: #FFEBCD) (RGB: 255, 235, 205)
* Light Goldenrod (web color) (Hex: #FAFAD2) (RGB: 250, 250, 210)
* Lemon Chiffon (web color) (Lemon Cream) (Hex: #FFFACD) (RGB: 255, 250, 205)
* Cornsilk (web color) (Hex: #FFF8DC) (RGB: 255, 248, 220)
* Beige (web color) (Hex: #F5F5DC) (RGB: 245, 245, 220)
* Cream (Hex: #FFFDD0) (RGB: 255, 253, 208)
* Papaya Whip (web color) (Hex: #FFEFD5) (RGB: 255, 239, 213)
* Banana Mania (Crayola) (Hex: #FBE7B2) (RGB: 251, 231, 128)
* Moccasin (web color) (Hex: #FFE4B5) (RGB: 255, 228, 182)
* Peach-Yellow (Hex: #FADFAD) (RGB: 250, 223, 173)
* Wheat (web color) (Hex: #F5DEB3) (RGB: 245, 222, 179)
* Bisque (web color) (Hex: #FFE4C4) (RGB: 255, 228, 196)
* Navajo White (web color) (Hex: #FFDEAD) (RGB: 255, 222, 173)
* Light Khaki (X11 "Khaki") (Hex: #F0E68C) (RGB: 240, 230, 140)
* Pale Goldenrod (web color) (Hex: #EEE8AA) (RGB: 238, 232, 170)
* Pale Canary Yellow (Crayola Canary) (Hex: #FFFF99) (RGB: 255, 255, 153)
* Buff (HexF0DC82) (RGB: 240, 220, 130)
* Flax (Hex: #EEDC82) (RGB: 238, 220, 130)
* Zinnwaldite (Hex: #EBC2AF) (RGB: 235, 194, 175)
* Desert Sand (Crayola) (Hex: #EDC9AF) (RGB: 237, 201, 175)
* Ecru (Hex: #C3B091) (RGB: 205, 184, 145)
* Tan (Hex: #D2B48C) (RGB: 210, 180, 140)
* Khaki (HTML/CSS) (Hex: #C3B091) (RGB: 195, 176, 145)
* Dark Khaki (X11 "Dark Khaki") (Hex: #BDB76B) (RGB: 189, 183, 107)
* Tumbleweed (Crayola) (Hex: #DEA681) (RGB: 222, 166, 129)
* Pale Taupe (Hex: #BC987E) (RGB: 188, 152, 126)
* Fallow (Hex: #C19A6B) (RGB: 193, 154, 107)
* Pale Brown (Hex: #987654) (RGB: 152, 118, 54)
* French Beige (Hex: #A67B5B) (RGB: 166, 123, 91)
Beige in human culture
Computers
* Beige shades have so often been used for personal computer cases and
peripherals like mice and monitors that the term beige box has come to mean an
ordinary, run-of-the-mill, generic, unremarkable personal computer.
Ethnography
* The skin color of some Caucasians is described more accurately as beige or
peach.
* A mixed-race, part black and part white person, usually referred to as a
mulatto, is also sometimes known as a beige (Whoever thought up this terminology
must have been thinking of the color beige as being the color zinnwaldite.)
Fashion
* Beige is a common color of cargo pants (the second most popular after khaki),
and is the most popular shade of pantyhose (tights in the UK).
Language
* In many languages, as in English, the word for beige is an adaptation of the
French word.
Sexuality
* The Beige Room was a popular San Francisco gay bar located at 831 Broadway
between Powell and Mason between 1951 and 1958. Noted gender illusionist Jose
Sarria often performed there. The Beige Room was “where San Francisco’s drag
culture flourished”. Large Halloween parties were held there with a costume
contest.
In ontology, the study of being, being is anything that can be said to be,
either transcendentally or immanently.
The nature of being varies by philosophy, giving different interpretations in
the frameworks of Aristotle, materialism, idealism, existentialism, Islam, and
Marxism.
Being in continental philosophy and existentialism
Some philosophers deny that the concept of "being" has any meaning at all, since
we only define an object's existence by its relation to other objects, and
actions it undertakes. The term "I am" has no meaning by itself; it must have an
action or relation appended to it. This in turn has led to the thought that
"being" and nothingness are closely related, developed in existential
philosophy.
Existentialist philosophers such as Sartre, as well as continental philosophers
such as Hegel and Heidegger have also written extensively on the concept of
being. Hegel distinguishes between the being of objects (being in itself) and
the being of people (Geist). Hegel, however, did not think there was much hope
for delineating a "meaning" of being, because being stripped of all predicates
is simply nothing.
Heidegger, in his quest to re-pose the original pre-Socratic questions of Being
(of why is there something rather than nothing), wondered at how to meaningfully
ask the question of the meaning of being, since it is both the greatest, as it
includes everything that is, and the least, since no particular thing can be
said of it. He distinguishes between different modes of beings: a privative mode
is present-at-hand, whereas beings in a fuller sense are described as
ready-to-hand. The one who asks the question of Being is described as Da-sein
("there/here-being") or being-in-the-world. Sartre, popularly understood as
misreading Heidegger (an understanding supported by Heidegger's essay "Letter on
Humanism" which responds to Sartre's famous address, "Existentialism is a
Humanism"), employs modes of being in an attempt to ground his concept of
freedom ontologically by distinguishing between being-in-itself and
being-for-itself.
Being in Islamic philosophy
The nature of "being" has also been debated and explored in Islamic philosophy,
notably by Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, and Mulla Sadra.
Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species
Homo sapiens (Latin: "wise man" or "knowing man") in the family Hominidae (the
great apes). Compared to other living organisms on Earth, humans have a highly
developed brain capable of abstract reasoning, language, and introspection. This
mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees their upper
limbs for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of
tools than any other species. DNA evidence indicates that modern humans
originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and they now inhabit every
continent, with a total population of over 6.6 billion as of 2007.
Like most primates, humans are social by nature; however, humans are
particularly adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression,
the exchange of ideas, and organization. Humans create complex social structures
composed of cooperating and competing groups, ranging in scale from small
families and partnerships to species-wide political, scientific and economic
unions. Social interactions between humans have also established an extremely
wide variety of traditions, rituals, ethics, values, social norms, and laws
which form the basis of human society. Humans also have a marked appreciation
for beauty and aesthetics which, combined with the human desire for
self-expression, has led to cultural innovations such as art, literature and
music.
Humans are also noted for their desire to understand and influence the world
around them, seeking to explain and manipulate natural phenomena through
science, philosophy, mythology and religion. This natural curiosity has led to
the development of advanced tools and skills; humans are the only known species
to build fires, cook their food, clothe themselves, and use numerous other
technologies.
History
Evolution
The scientific study of human evolution encompasses the development of the genus
Homo, but usually involves studying other hominids and hominines as well, such
as Australopithecus. "Modern humans" are defined as the Homo sapiens species, of
which the only extant subspecies is Homo sapiens sapiens; Homo sapiens idaltu
(roughly translated as "elder wise man"), the other known subspecies, is
extinct. Anatomically modern humans appear in the fossil record in Africa about
130,000 years ago.
The closest living relatives of Homo sapiens are two distinct species of the
genus Pan: the Bonobo (Pan paniscus) and the Common Chimpanzee (Pan
troglodytes). These species share the same common ancestor. The main difference
between them is the social organization: matriarchal for the Bonobo and
patriarchal for the Common Chimpanzee. Full genome sequencing resulted in the
conclusion that "after 6.5 million years of separate evolution, the differences
between bonobo/chimpanzee and human are just 10 times greater than those between
two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice". In
fact, 98.4% of the DNA sequence is identical between the two Pan species and
human. It has been estimated that the human lineage diverged from that of
chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from gorillas about eight million
years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in Chad in 2001, classified as
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, is approximately seven million years old, which may
indicate an earlier divergence.
There are two prominent scientific theories of the origins of contemporary
humans. They concern the relationship between modern humans and other hominids.
The single-origin, or "out-of-Africa", hypothesis proposes that modern humans
evolved in Africa and later migrated outwards to replace hominids in other parts
of the world. The multiregional hypothesis, on the other hand, proposes that
modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations.
Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah proposed
that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species.
They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was
reduced to a small number of breeding pairs — no more than 10,000 and possibly
as few as 1,000 — resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons
for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one of those is the Toba
catastrophe theory.
Human evolution is characterized by a number of important morphological,
developmental, physiological and behavioral changes which have taken place since
the split between the last common ancestor of Homo and Pan. The primary change,
both in terms of chronology and in terms of it being the trait that defines the
human subtribe the Hominina, was the evolution of a bipedal locomotor adaptation
from an arboreal locomotor adaptation. Following this was the evolution of a
larger brain cavity and brain itself, which is typically 1,400 cm3 in modern
humans; over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. Other significant
morphological changes included a reduction of the canine tooth and the descent
of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible. With respect to
development, the pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of
other apes (heterochrony), allowing for an extended period of social learning
and language acquisition in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists argue that
a reorganization of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial
expansion itself. One important physiological change in humans was the evolution
of hidden estrus or concealed ovulation in females, which may have coincided
with the evolution of important behavioral changes, such as pair bonding.
Another significant behavioral change includes the development of material
culture, or the (over time) increasingly wide variety of human-made objects
which are used to manipulate humans' physical and social environments. How all
these changes are related and what their role is in the evolution of complex
social organization and culture are matters of ongoing debate.
Rise of civilization
The rise of agriculture led to the foundation of stable human settlements.
The most widely accepted view among current anthropologists is that Homo sapiens
originated in the African savanna around 200,000 BP (Before Present), descending
from Homo erectus, had colonized Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 BP, and finally
colonized the Americas approximately 10,000 years ago. They displaced Homo
neanderthalensis and other species descended from Homo erectus (which had
colonized Eurasia as early as 2 million years ago) through more successful
reproduction and competition for resources.
Up until only around 10,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers
(with some communities persisting until this day). They generally lived in
small, nomadic groups. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic
Revolution. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human
settlements, the domestication of animals, and the use of metal tools.
Agriculture also encouraged trade and cooperation, leading to complex societies.
Villages developed into thriving civilizations in regions such as the Middle
East's Fertile Crescent.
Around 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt
and the Indus Valley. Military forces were formed for protection, and government
bureaucracies for administration. States cooperated and competed for resources,
in some cases waging wars. Around 2,000 – 3,000 years ago, some states, such as
Persia, China, and Rome, developed through conquest into the first expansive
empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in the Middle East,
and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South Asia, also rose to
prominence at this time.
The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In
China, an advanced and urbanized economy promoted innovations such as printing
and the compass, while the Islamic Golden Age saw major scientific advancements
in Muslim empires. In Europe, the rediscovery of classical learning and
inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 14th
century. Over the next 500 years, exploration and imperialistic conquest brought
much of the Americas, Asia, and Africa under European control, leading to later
struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century and
the Industrial Revolution in the 18th – 19th centuries promoted major
innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy
development, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as
representative democracy and Communism.
As a result of such changes, modern humans live in a world that has become
increasingly globalized and interconnected. Although this has encouraged the
growth of science, art, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes, the
development and use of weapons of mass destruction, and increased environmental
destruction and pollution.
Habitat and population
Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and, depending on
the lifestyle, other natural resources, such as fertile land for growing crops
and grazing livestock, or seasonally by hunting populations of prey. However,
humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by various methods,
such as through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, and
manufacturing goods. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport
infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many
places these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline
of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often
a major determinant in population change.
Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to all
climates. Within the last few decades, humans have explored Antarctica, the
ocean depths, and space, although long-term habitation of these environments is
not yet possible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the
most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The vast
majority of the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (13%) and Europe
(12%), with 0.5% in Oceania. (See list of countries by population and list of
countries by population density.)
Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such
as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and
restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has
been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given
time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the
Moon. As of 2007, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings,
although there has been a continuous human presence in outer space since the
launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October
31, 2000.
From AD 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one billion to six
billion. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in
urban areas, and this percentage is expected to rise throughout the 21st
century. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution
and crime, especially in inner city and suburban slums. Benefits of urban living
include increased literacy, access to the global canon of human knowledge and
decreased susceptibility to rural famines.
Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. It has been hypothesized
that in the past, human predation has contributed to the extinction of a number
of species; as humans are not generally preyed on themselves, humans have been
described as the ultimate superpredators. Currently, through land development
and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate
change. This is believed to be a major contributor to the ongoing Holocene
extinction event, a mass extinction which, if it continues at its current rate,
is predicted to wipe out half of all species over the next century.
Biology
For more details on this topic, see .
Physiology and genetics
For more details on this topic, see , , and .
An old diagram of a male human skeleton.
Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by
genes, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet
and exercise. The average height of an adult human is about 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to
1.8 m) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place. Humans are
capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving their arms available for
manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs.
Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to other primates, with
notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and
pubic area, the average human has more hair follicles on his or her body than
the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter,
finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making
them harder to see.
An Inuit woman, circa 1907.
The hue of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of pigments called
melanins. Human skin hues can range from very dark brown to very pale pink,
while human hair ranges from blond to brown to red to, most commonly, black.
Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a
protection against ultraviolet solar radiation, as melanin is an effective
sun-block. The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically
stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation.
Human skin also has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure
to ultraviolet radiation.
The average sleep requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an
adult and nine to ten hours for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to
seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies;
this sleep deprivation can lead to negative effects. A sustained restriction of
adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in
physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily
discomfort.
Humans are an eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23
chromosomes, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes
and one pair of sex chromosomes. By present estimates, humans have approximately
20,000 – 25,000 genes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination
system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The X
chromosome is larger and carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means
that recessive diseases associated with X-linked genes, such as hemophilia,
affect men more often than women.
Human embryo at 5 weeks.
Life cycle
The human life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. New humans
develop viviparously from conception. An egg is usually fertilized inside the
female by sperm from the male through sexual intercourse, though the recent
technology of in vitro fertilization is occasionally used. The fertilized egg,
called a zygote, divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which
over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a human
fetus. After this span of time, the fully-grown fetus is expelled from the
female's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At
this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the
full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend personhood to human
fetuses while they remain in the uterus.
Two young human girls.
Compared with that of other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful
labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in
injury, or even death, to the child and/or mother. This is because of both the
relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the
mother's relatively narrow pelvis (a trait required for successful bipedalism,
by way of natural selection). The chances of a successful labor increased
significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of
new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain
relatively hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal
death rates approximately 100 times more common than in developed countries.
In developed countries, infants are typically 3 – 4 kg (6 – 9 pounds) in weight
and 50 – 60 cm (20 – 24 inches) in height at birth. However, low birth weight is
common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant
mortality in these regions. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some
years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 12 to 15 years of age. Human girls
continue to grow physically until around the age of 18, and human boys until
around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages:
infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The
lengths of these stages, however — particularly the later ones — are not fixed.
There are striking differences in life expectancy around the world. The
developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40 years
(highest in Monaco at 45.1 years), while in the developing world, the median age
is 15 – 20 years (lowest in Uganda at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth in
Hong Kong, China is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in
Swaziland, primarily because of AIDS, it is 31.3 years for both sexes. While one
in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60
years of age or older.
The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was
estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002. At least one person, Jeanne
Calment, is known to have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been
claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60
or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are
53 men for every 100 women.
The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it
persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of
death causes unease or fear for most humans. Burial ceremonies are
characteristic of human societies, often inspired by beliefs in an afterlife or
immortality.
Diet
Early Homo sapiens employed a "hunter-gatherer" method as their primary means of
food collection, involving combining stationary plant and fungal food sources
(such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game which must be
hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It is believed that humans have used
fire to prepare and cook food prior to eating since the time of their divergence
from Homo erectus.
Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming both plant and animal products. The
view of humans as omnivores is supported by the evidence that both a pure animal
and a pure vegetable diet can lead to deficiency diseases in humans. A pure
animal diet can, for instance, lead to scurvy, while a pure plant diet can lead
to deficiency of a number of nutrients, including Vitamin B12. Supplementation,
particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for people living on a pure
plant diet. Some humans have chosen to abstain from eating some or all meat for
religious, ethical, ecological, or health reasons.
The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the
development of food science. In general, humans can survive for two to eight
weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is
usually limited to three or four days. Lack of food remains a serious problem,
with about 300,000 people starving to death every year. Childhood malnutrition
is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global
food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has
increased to almost epidemic proportions, leading to health complications and
increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. The
United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) state that 32% of American
adults over the age of 20 are obese, while 66.5% are obese or overweight.
Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, with many
attributing excessive weight gain to a combination of overeating and
insufficient exercise.
At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which has
substantially altered the kind of food people eat. This has led to increased
populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population
density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed,
and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and
culture.
Psychology
A sketch of the human brain, imposed upon the profile of Michelangelo's David -
sketch by artist Priyan Weerappuli.
For more details on this topic, see and .
The human brain is the center of the central nervous system in humans, as well
as the primary control center for the peripheral nervous system. The brain
controls "lower", or involuntary, autonomic activities such as the respiration,
and digestion. The brain also controls "higher" order, conscious activities,
such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction. These cognitive processes
constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied
in the field of psychology.
The human brain is generally regarded as more capable of these higher order
activities, and more "intelligent" in general, than that of any other species.
While other animals are capable of creating structures and using simple tools —
mostly as a result of instinct and learning through mimicry — human technology
is vastly more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the
most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure
or tool created by any other animal.
Modern Anthropology has tended to bear out Darwin's proposition that "the
difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly
is one of degree and not of kind".
Consciousness and thought
For more details on this topic, see and .
The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom.
Humans are one of only six species to pass the mirror test — which tests whether
an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself — along with
chimpanzees, orangutans, dolphins, and possibly pigeons. In October 2006, three
elephants at the Bronx Zoo also passed this test. Humans under the age of 2
typically fail this test. However, this may be a matter of degree rather than a
sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.
The brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual
human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective
views of existence and the passage of time.
Humans are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind,
which correspond roughly to the mental processes of thought. These are said to
possess qualities such as self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability
to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. The extent
to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of
debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The
philosopher of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there
is no such thing as a narrative centre called the "mind", but that instead there
is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of
"software" running in parallel.
Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension
of the nervous system, in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the
field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely-defined area between in the field
of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology
does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed
purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the
mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being
included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as
artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.
The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive
psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses
information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception,
learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all
well-researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school
of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information
processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental
psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied
and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research
and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind
through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people
come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes
change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social,
or moral development.
Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is
experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the
things in experience Phenomenal consciousness is the state of being conscious,
such as when we say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being conscious
of'' something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am
conscious of these words." Various forms of access consciousness include
awareness, self-awareness, conscience, stream of consciousness, Husserl's
phenomenology, and intentionality. The concept of phenomenal consciousness, in
modern history, according to some, is closely related to the concept of qualia.
Social psychology links sociology with psychology in their shared study of the
nature and causes of human social interaction, with an emphasis on how people
think towards each other and how they relate to each other. The behavior and
mental processes, both human and non-human, can be described through animal
cognition, ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as
well. Human ecology is an academic discipline that investigates how humans and
human societies interact with both their natural environment and the human
social environment.
Motivation and emotion
Goya's Tio Paquete (1820).
For more details on this topic, see and .
Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate actions of human
beings. Motivation is based on emotion — specifically, on the search for
satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict.
Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be
influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence
because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these
actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of
all learned responses.
Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary
motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on financial
incentives, moral incentives, or coercive incentives. Religions generally posit
divine or demonic influences.
Happiness, or being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of
happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some people might define it as the
best condition which a human can have — a condition of mental and physical
health. Others may define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of
the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society,
inner peace, and so forth.
Human emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control,
human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for
various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked.
Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, like love, admiration, or joy,
contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There
is often a distinction seen between refined emotions, which are socially
learned, and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate.
Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is
worthy of note, particularly in those cultures where emotion is considered
separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories, to provide
an example, emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical
health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive
emotion was harmful, while some Sufi teachers (in particular, the poet and
astronomer Omar Khayyám) felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual
perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy.
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a
complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated mammals.
These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and
intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined
emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural
function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilized tandem,
it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social
disorder and crime.
Love and sexuality
For more details on this topic, see and .
Human sexuality, besides ensuring biological reproduction, has important social
functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds and hierarchies among
individuals; may be directed to spiritual transcendence (according to some
traditions); and in a hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving
sexual gratification. Sexual desire, or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge,
often accompanied by strong emotions such as love, ecstasy and jealousy.
As with other human self-descriptions, humans propose that it is high
intelligence and complex societies of humans that have produced the most complex
sexual behaviors of any animal, including a great many behaviors that are not
directly connected with reproduction.
Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to cultural norms, which vary
widely. Restrictions are sometimes determined by religious beliefs or social
customs.
Many sexologists believe that the majority of Homo sapiens have the inherent
capacity to be attracted to both males and females (a kind of universal
potential bisexuality). In a variation of this, pioneering researcher Sigmund
Freud believed that humans are born polymorphously perverse, which means that
any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. According to Freud, humans
then pass through five stages of psychosexual development (and can fixate on any
stage because of various traumas during the process). For Alfred Kinsey, another
influential sex researcher, people can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of
sexual orientation (with only small minorities fully heterosexual or
homosexual). Recent studies of neurology and genetics suggest people may be born
with one sexual orientation or another, so there is not currently a clear
consensus among sex researchers.
Culture
For more details on this topic, see .
Culture is defined here as a set of distinctive material, intellectual,
emotional, and spiritual features of a social group, including art, literature,
lifestyles, value systems, traditions, rituals, and beliefs. The link between
human biology and human behavior and culture is often very close, making it
difficult to clearly divide topics into one area or the other; as such, the
placement of some subjects may be based primarily on convention.
Culture consists of values, social norms, and artifacts. A culture's values
define what it holds to be important or ethical. Closely linked are norms,
expectations of how people ought to behave, bound by tradition. Artifacts, or
"material culture", are objects derived from the culture's values, norms, and
understanding of the world.
The mainstream anthropological view of ‘culture’ implies that most people
experience a strong resistance when reminded that there is an animal as well as
a spiritual aspect to human nature.<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07" />
Language
For more details on this topic, see .
The capacity humans have to transfer concepts, ideas and notions through speech
and writing is unrivaled in known species. The faculty of speech is a defining
feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern
population (see origin of language). Language is central to the communication
between humans, as well as being central to the sense of identity that unites
nations, cultures and ethnic groups.
The invention of writing systems around 5000 years ago allowed the preservation
of language on material objects, and was a major step in cultural evolution.
Language is closely tied to ritual and religion (cf. mantra, sacred text).
The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the
relationship between languages. There are approximately 6,000 different
languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more
that are considered extinct.
Art, music and literature
Allegory of Music (ca. 1594), a painting of a woman writing sheet music by
Lorenzo Lippi.
For more details on this topic, see , , and .
Artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind, from early
pre-historic art to contemporary art. Art is one of the most unusual aspects of
human behavior and a key distinguishing feature of humans from other species.
As a form of cultural expression by humans, art may be defined by the pursuit of
diversity and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration (i.e. art
history, art criticism, and art theory) to mediate its boundaries. This
distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical,
and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them.
In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or
result of making material works which, from concept to creation, adhere to the
"creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by
being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any
undisciplined pursuit of recreation.
Music is a natural intuitive phenomenon based on the three distinct and
interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Listening
to music is perhaps the most common and universal form of entertainment for
humans, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines. There are a
wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics.
Literature, the body of written — and possibly oral — works, especially creative
ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-fiction. Literature
includes such genres as epic, legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.
Sculpture of a man meditating.
Spirituality and religion
For more details on this topic, see and .
Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the soul or spirit, is one of
the many different approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental
questions about humankind's place in the universe, the meaning of life, and the
ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been addressed by
philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it
focuses on mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma and God.
A more organized, but related, concept is religion — sometimes used
interchangeably with "faith" — which is commonly defined as a belief system
concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the moral codes, practices,
values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In the course of
its development, religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and
individual perspective.
Some of the chief questions and issues religions are concerned with include life
after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life (the
source of a variety of origin beliefs), the nature of the universe (religious
cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A
common source in religions for answers to these questions are transcendent
divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are
theistic — many are nontheistic or ambiguous on the topic, particularly among
the Eastern religions.
Although a majority of humans profess some variety of spiritual or religious
belief, some are irreligious, lacking or rejecting belief in the supernatural or
spiritual. Additionally, although most religions and spiritual beliefs are
clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and methodological level,
the two are not generally considered to be mutually exclusive; a majority of
humans hold a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction
between philosophy and religion, on the other hand, is at times less clear, and
the two are linked in such fields as the philosophy of religion and theology.
The Thinker, Artist's rendering of the sculpture by Auguste Rodin.
Philosophy and self-reflection
For more details on this topic, see , , and .
Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation,
analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level.
It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of values and reality
by chiefly speculative means.
The core philosophical disciplines are logic, ontology or metaphysics,
epistemology, and axiology, which includes the branches of ethics and
aesthetics. Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is also used
to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions
argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.
Plato and Aristotle in a detail from The School of Athens by Raphael.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first
principles, being and existence (ontology). In between the doctrines of religion
and science, stands the philosophical perspective of metaphysical cosmology.
This ancient field of study seeks to draw logical conclusions about the nature
of the universe, humanity, god, and/or their connections based on the extension
of some set of presumed facts borrowed from religion and/or observation.
Humans often consider themselves to be the dominant species on Earth, and the
most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This
belief is especially strong in modern Western culture. Alongside such claims of
dominance is often found radical pessimism because of the frailty and brevity of
human life.
Humanism is a philosophy which defines a socio-political doctrine the bounds of
which are not constrained by those of locally developed cultures, but which
seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. Because
spiritual beliefs of a community often manifests as religious doctrine, the
history of which is as factious as it is unitive, secular humanism grew as an
answer to the need for a common philosophy that transcended the cultural
boundaries of local moral codes and religions. Many humanists are religious,
however, and see humanism as simply a mature expression of a common truth
present in most religions. Humanists affirm the possibility of an objective
truth and accept that human perception of that truth is imperfect. The most
basic tenets of humanism are that humans matter and can solve human problems,
and that science, freedom of speech, rational thought, democracy, and freedom in
the arts are worthy pursuits or goals for all peoples. Humanism depends chiefly
on reason and logic without consideration for the supernatural.
Science and technology
In the mid- to late 20th century, humans achieved a level of technological
mastery sufficient to leave the atmosphere of Earth for the first time, explore
space and walk on the moon.
Science is the discovery of knowledge about the world by verifiable means.
Technology is the objects humans make to serve their purposes.
Human cultures are both characterized and differentiated by the objects that
they make and use. Archaeology attempts to tell the story of past or lost
cultures in part by close examination of the artifacts they produced. Early
humans left stone tools, pottery and jewelry that are particular to various
regions and times.
Improvements in technology are passed from one culture to another. For instance,
the cultivation of crops arose in several different locations, but quickly
spread to be an almost ubiquitous feature of human life. Similarly, advances in
weapons, architecture and metallurgy are quickly disseminated.
Such techniques can be passed on by oral tradition. The development of writing,
itself a kind of technology, made it possible to pass information from
generation to generation and from region to region with greater accuracy.
Together, these developments made possible the commencement of civilization and
urbanization, with their inherently complex social arrangements. Eventually this
led to the institutionalization of the development of new technology, and the
associated understanding of the way the world functions. This science now forms
a central part of human culture.
In recent times, physics and astrophysics have come to play a central role in
shaping what is now known as physical cosmology, that is, the understanding of
the universe through scientific observation and experiment. This discipline,
which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scales and at the
earliest times, begins by arguing for the big bang, a sort of cosmic expansion
from which the universe itself is said to have erupted ~13.7 ± 0.2 billion (109)
years ago. After its violent beginnings and until its very end, scientists then
propose that the entire history of the universe has been an orderly progression
governed by physical laws.
Race and ethnicity
For more details on this topic, see and .
Humans often categorize themselves in terms of race or ethnicity, although the
validity of human races as true biological categories is questionable. Human
racial categories are based on both ancestry and visible traits, especially skin
color and facial features. These categories may also carry some information on
non-visible biological traits, such as the risk of developing particular
diseases such as sickle-cell disease.
Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted
as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. Genetic
studies have demonstrated that humans on the African continent are most
genetically diverse (Y-chromosome and MtDNA lineages). However, compared to many
other animals, human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous. It has been
claimed that the majority of genetic variation occurs within "racial groups",
with only 5 to 15% of total variation occurring between racial groups. However,
this remains an area of active debate.
Ethnic groups, on the other hand, are more often linked by linguistic, cultural,
ancestral, and national or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic
group is based on kinship and descent. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant
treatment and impact social identity, giving rise to racism and the theory of
identity politics.
Society
For more details on this topic, see .
Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction
between humans.
Government and politics
The United Nations complex in New York City, which houses one of the largest
human political organizations in the world.
For more details on this topic, see , , and .
A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory,
having an organized government, and possessing internal and external
sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states,
enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the
establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of
domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a
human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use
of physical force within a given territory."
Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws;
typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy.
Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the
term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also
observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and
religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many
different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. The most
common form of government worldwide is a republic, however other examples
include monarchy, social democracy, military dictatorship and theocracy.
All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki immediately killed over 120,000
humans.
War
For more details on this topic, see .
War is a state of widespread conflict between states, organizations, or
relatively large groups of people, which is characterized by the use of lethal
violence between combatants or upon civilians. It is estimated that during the
20th century between 167 and 188 million humans died as a result of war.
A common perception of war is a series of military campaigns between at least
two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources,
religion or other issues. A war said to liberate an occupied country is
sometimes characterized as a "war of liberation", while a war between internal
elements of a state is a civil war. Full scale pitched-battle wars between
adversaries of comparable strength appear to have nearly disappeared from human
activity, with the last major one in the Congo region winding down in the late
1990's. Nearly all war now is asymmetric warfare, in which campaigns of
sabotage, guerrilla warfare and sometimes acts of terrorism disrupt control and
supply of better-equipped occupying forces, resulting in long low-intensity wars
of attrition.
There have been a wide variety of rapidly advancing tactics throughout the
history of war, ranging from conventional war to asymmetric warfare to total war
and unconventional warfare. Techniques include hand to hand combat, the use of
ranged weapons, and ethnic cleansing. Military intelligence has often played a
key role in determining victory and defeat. Propaganda, which often includes
factual information, slanted opinion and disinformation, plays a key role in
maintaining unity within a warring group, and/or sowing discord among opponents.
In modern warfare, soldiers and armoured fighting vehicles are used to control
the land, warships the sea, and air power the sky. Outer space has recently
become a factor in warfare as well, although no actual warfare is currently
carried out in space.
War is a strong catalyst in technology. Throughout history there has been a
constant struggle between defense and offense, armour, and the weapons designed
to breach it. Modern examples include the bunker buster bomb, and the bunkers
which they are designed to destroy. Important inventions such as medicine,
navigation, metallurgy, mass production, nuclear power, rocketry and computers
have been completely or partially driven by war.
Trade and economics
Buyers and sellers bargain in Chichicastenango Market, Guatemala.
Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both, and a form of
economics. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form
of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders
instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a
result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money
(and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and
promoted trade.
Trade exists for many reasons. Because of specialization and division of labor,
most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading
their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different
regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some
tradeable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits
of mass production.
Economics is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade
and consumption of goods and services.
Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two
main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as
households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a
whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital
and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are
resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic
logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity
or determining economic value. Mainstream economics focuses on how prices
reflect supply and demand, and uses equations to predict consequences of
decisions.
Are you interested in
mult-player online internet games? Such as runescape and neopets?Internet
Game Online-games, tips, cheats and kids forumsAnother
good forum is the Internet Junction For Gamers IJFG.COM
Internet Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and
More IJFG.COM Jokes, Pranks, Runescape and other cool games at IJFG.COM.
RuneScape is set in a medieval fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or
"EverQuest", where players control character representations of themselves. As
with most massive multiplayer online roleplaying games (MMORPG), there is no
overall objective or end to the game. Players explore, form alliances, perform
optional tasks, and complete quests for rewards and to build character's skills.
RuneScape has often been one of
the top massive online role playing games. It is a unique game. But, with a
unique game, comes unique players. Players get bored, and then try to develop
cheats....autos or bots that will help them achieve success in their beloved
games of Runescape 2.
RuneScape is a virtual world which
is divided into two part: Members Areas and Non-Members areas. People who pay to
play (p2p), receive access to the special areas. They also have access to the
free areas. The members' places are much larger, offer "better" items for the
gameplay of rs2, and much, much more. The character that you create when you
first start playing runescape, moves around the game on foot; either by running,
or walking. Players are challenged to their utmost skills by fighting new
monsters, completing difficult quests, and manipulating marketing. As Runescape
2 is an RPG (Role playing game), there is no set path a person must take to play
rs. They can choose what to do, and when, whether it be training their
money-making skills, or fighting another player. Players usually interact with
each other by chatting through public chat, or private chat.Internet
Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and More IJFG.COM IJFG.com was a
runescape 2 based site. They have now, however, taken another look....
Of course the king of all game
cheating websites is
trick
the trik (otherwise known as RPG Cheats Site), where you can find cheat
forums, mmorpg topsite, arcade games and any mmo game related topics.
The master of massive multiplayer
online role-playing games (MMORPG) cheats can be found at Trik.com
Trik.com; this site is one of the best today. The forum section,
Trik.com forum, originally came from IJFG.com (Internet Junction For
Gamers) , which was one of the best websites that discussed various gamers'
issues. The full name was Internet Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and
More. This site had Jokes, Pranks, RuneScape and other cool games. RuneScape is
set in a medieval fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or "EverQuest," where
players control character representations of themselves. As with most MMORPG,
there is no overall objective or end to the game. Players explore, form
alliances, perform optional tasks, and complete quests for rewards and to build
characters' skills.
Trik.com continues IJFG.com's
success, but Trik.com has more to offer. Trik Topsite can be found at
Trik Topsite; the TopSite is a great addition if you want to find the best
MMO RPG site(s) or raise your site in the rankings. Trik.com also has a
viciously competitive Arcade. If you want to be the #1 Arcade on Trik, then come
prove yourself at Trik.com arcade:
Trik arcade. Trik.com ?Trik.com/topsite ?Trik.com/forum/arcade.php
With the rising popularity of
commercial MMORPG games came the desire from ardent players of these games to
run their own servers beside the ones run by the game's creator. Since the
original server software is not usually available, the behavior of the server
has to be re-engineered. This can be done by analyzing the data stream with the
original server, or by disassembling and analyzing the client which is
available.
Ultima Online was one of the first
large MMORPGs. Due to its openness in implementation, server emulators arose
very quickly, even during the beta stage of development. The destination to
which the client connects was changeable by simply editing a text file. In beta
stage the client-server data stream was not encrypted yet. The term server
emulator became known through Ultima Online server reimplementation such as UOX,
which was the pioneer. Many forks and reimplementations followed UOX, because
its source code was released under the GNU General Public License relatively
early. RunUO is today the most widely used UO-server emulator. After RuneScape
implemented anti-cheating measures, many gamers left and started their own
private servers. The best place to discuss the private server is at
Trik- The Master of Private Server.
Another useful site is
Rune
Web ruwb.com . This site is about more serious RuneScape gold trading,
account exchange, gold for real life cash and many services. It includes tips on
how to avoid getting lured/scammed while using the marketplace. For programming,
visual basics, java, C/C++, scar and all other languages such as PHP, HTML, ASP,
Delphi. There are also sections for graphics talents, plus many cool videos and
fun stuff.
A defining moment in internet
gaming history was when a group of gamers called (hygo 7) decided to start an
ultimate game forum, which they named
hygo.com. It has the best financial backing, the friendliest game community,
and the highest quality of information. Currently Hygo.com has entered a new
phase...Hygo.com is offering the best private server game. With thousands of
members, Hygo.com is your next place to visit, as they have an amazing game with
a community and economy.
Hygo.com - The Online Adventure Game. is definitely one of the top sites you
want to join right now!
EZud is another popular site.
ezud.com. It has the best runescape bug abuse, bugs and trik.
ezud.com - The runescape bugs. is definitely one of the best sites you want
to join right now!
Contact Information
Call our office today to set up an appointment. Learn more about how we can
help you, and learn more about the other services that we can offer you. All
messages we receive will be answered as soon as possible. We look forward to
hearing from you.
- Electronic mail
- General Information:
